四六级作文基本句式 longshan 发表于 2005-4-22 15:13:00

以下是短文写作中使用率最高、覆盖面最广的基本句式，每组句式的功能相同或相似，考生可根据自己的情况选择其中的1－2个，做到能够熟练正确地仿写或套用。 　　1．表示原因 　　1）There are three reasons for this． 　　2）The reasons for this are as follows． 　　3）The reason for this is obvious． 　　4）The reason for this is not far to seek． 　　5）The reason for this is that．．． 　　6）We have good reason to believe that．．． 　　例如： 　　There are three reasons for the changes that have taken place in our life．Firstly，people’s living standard has been greatly improved．Secondly，most people are well paid， and they can afford what they need or like．Last but not least，more and more people prefer to enjoy modern life． 　　注：如考生写第一个句子没有把握，可将其改写成两个句子。如：Great changes have taken place in our life． There are three reasons for this．这样写可以避免套用中的表达失误。 　　2．表示好处 　　1）It has the following advantages． 　　2）It does us a lot of good． 　　3）It benefits us quite a lot． 　　4）It is beneficial to us． 　　5）It is of great benefit to us． 　　例如： 　　Books are like friends．They can help us know the world better，and they can open our minds and widen our horizons．Therefore，reading extensively is of great benefit to us． 　　3．表示坏处 　　1）It has more disadvantages than advantages． 　　2）It does us much harm． 　　3）It is harmfulto us． 　　例如： 　　However，everything dividesinto two．Television can also be harmful to us．It can do harm to our health and make us lazy if we spend too much time watching televi- sion． 　　4．表示重要、必要、困难、方便、可能 　　1）It is important（necessary，difficult，convenient， possible）for sb．to do sth． 　　2）We think it necessary to do sth． 　　3）It plays an important role in our life． 　　例如： 　　Computers are now being used everywhere，whether in the government，in schools or in business．Soon， computers will be found in every home，too．We have good reason to say that computers are playing an increasingly important role in our life and we have stepped into the Computer Age． 　　5．表示措施 　　1）We should take some effective measures． 　　2）We should try our best to overcome（conquer）the difficulties． 　　3）We should do our utmost in doing sth． 　　4）We should solve the problems that we are confronted（faced）with． 　　例如： 　　The housing problem that we are confronted with is becoming more and more serious．Therefore，we must take some effective measures to solve it． 　　6．表示变化 　　1）Some changes have taken place in the past five years． 　　2）A great change will certainly be produced in the world’s communications． 　　3）The computer has brought about many changes in education． 　　例如： 　　Some changes have taken place in people’s diet in the past five years．The major reasons for these changes are not far to seek．Nowadays，more and more people are switching from grain to meat for protein，and from fruit and vegetable to milk for vitamins． 　　7．表示事实、现状 　　1）We cannot ignore the fact that．．． 　　2）No one can deny the fact that．．． 　　3）There is no denying the fact that．．． 　　4）This is a phenomenon that many people are interested in． 　　5）However，that’s not the case． 　　例如： 　　We cannot ignore the fact that industrialization brings with it the problems of pollution．To solve these problems， we can start by educating the public about the hazards of pollution．The government on its part should also design stricter laws to promote a cleaner environment． 　　8．表示比较 　　1）Compared with A，B．．． 　　2）I prefer to read rather than watch TV． 　　3）There is a striking contrast between them． 　　例如： 　　Compared with cars，bicycles have several advantages besides being affordable．Firstly，they do not consume natural resources of petroleum．Secondly，they do not cause the pollution problem．Last but not least，they contribute to people’s health by giving them due physical exercise． 　　9．表示数量 　　1）It has increased（decreased）from．．．to．．． 　　2）The population in this city has now increased （decreased）to 800，000． 　　3）The output of July in this factory increased by 15％ compared with that of January． 　　例如： 　　With the improvement of the living standard，the proportion of people’s income spent on food has decreased while that spent on education has increased． 　　再如： 　　From the graph listed above，itcan be seen that student use of computers has increased from an average of less than two hours per week in 1990 to 20 hours in 2000． 　　注：“From the graph listed above，it can be seen that”见句式12。考生将句式9和句式12结合在一起，便可较好地写出2002年6月CET －4、6短文写作的第一段。 　　10．表示看法 　　1）People have（take，adopt，assume）different attitudes towards sth． 　　2）People have different opinions on this problem． 　　3）People take different views of（on）the question． 　　4）Some people believe that．．．Others argue that．．． 　　例如： 　　People have different attitudes towards failure．Some believe that failure leads to success． 　　Every failure they experience translates into a greater chance of success at their renewed endeavor．However， others are easily discouraged by failures and put themselves into the category of losers． 　　再如： 　　Do“lucky numbersreally bring good luck？Different people have different views on it． 　　注：一个段落有时很适宜以问句开始，考生应掌握这一写作方法。 　　11．表示结论 　　1）In short，it can be said that ．．． 　　2）It may be briefly summed up as follows． 　　3）From what has been mentioned above，we can come to the conclusion that ．．． 　　例如： 　　From what has been mentioned above，we can come to the conclusion that examination is necessary，however， its method should be improved． 　　注：例句1可用于任何一个段落的结论句；例句3则多用文章结论段的第一句。 　　12．套语 　　1）It’s well known to us that ．．． 　　2）As is known to us，．．． 　　3）This is a topic that is being widely talked about． 　　4）From the graph（table，chart）listed above，it can be seen that ．．． 　　5）As aproverb says，“Where there is a will，there is a way． 　　例如： 　　As is well known to us，it is important for the students to know the world outside campus． 　　The reason for this is obvious．Nowadays，the society is changing and developing rapidly，and the campus is no longer an“ivory tower．As college students，we must get in touch with the world outside the campus．Only in this way can we adapt ourselves to the society quickly after we graduate． 　　再如： 　　Does it pay to be honest？This is a topic that is being widely talked about and different people have different opinions on it．

英语四级真的就这么简单

第三招,造作文。“熟读唐诗三百首,不会做诗也能吟”，“千古文章一大抄“。找到四级每一套考题后面所附的范文,在把文章结构弄懂、每一个词、每一句话都搞明白的基础上,一定要背熟。它可以进一步巩固基本语法、扩大词汇量。十几篇下来,自己再操练一下,尽可能的运用自己已经背的很熟的词汇和句子，然后检查一下错误。练上几篇，一定会在考试时思如泉涌,十来分钟后,一篇佳作跃然纸上。过完以上两招,听力与作文即可稳拿30 分，四级及格已胜利在望。         第四招,抠阅读。不要求快，要知道,要想做到一目十行，必先十目一行。阅读也要像听力一样，一句一句的抠，每一个词都要弄懂，甚至要把印刷错误也揪出来，然后熟读，能背过若干篇更好。在此过程中，可以大幅度提高词汇量，并且，由于所背的单词有具体的语境，印象也深。此外，还可以练就一身较高的语法功力。阅读中的句子，尽管较长，但仔细分析一下，不外乎比中学英语课文多了几个从句、几个非谓语动词、几个介词词组而已。这样认认真真抠上50篇四级阅读文章，阅读拿下30多分，不在话下。此外，词汇也会上涨一千有余。         第五招,滤单选。先做上一遍，找出做错的和拿不准的，一个题一个题的弄懂，一句一句的读熟，遇上生词，要和阅读中的生词一视同仁，立刻收入单词本并且招至帐下。         以上五招，不可颠倒顺序，更不可偷工减料，否则，“不听老生言”，必定“吃亏在眼前”。若时间不允许,可以不过第五招,在考四级前把四级单词快速扫一遍，挑出还不认识的，多读几遍即可。         您怎么可能考不了高分         以上五招如果您全学会了，并且练熟了，在听力上，您至少能一遍能听懂80%的内容。想当初，在一句话只能听对个把词的情况下，尚能蒙对几个。而如今，听力的内功如此雄厚，口语也有很大进步(跟读、模仿、背诵了那么多句子)，背景知识也增加了不少(熟知几十个场景)，再加上一些很容易掌握的“下三滥”手段---所谓的应试技巧，怎么可能拿不下听力?除非您的耳朵练坏了,连汉语听力也不行了。顺便提醒诸位练听力时,一定要劳逸结合,听一小时,休息十分钟。         在作文上，有十多篇范文的思路作铺垫，又背了那么多基本句式，掌握有单词数千，一双妙手，怎么会做不出好文章？         在阅读上，您也许会担心背景知识不够或者自己的思维方式与鬼佬的相距甚远。其实，这根本不用大家操心。我曾经把四级阅读文章和考题翻译成汉语，让学生们做，他们认为我太低估他们的智商了。只要您细心一点，别太吹毛求疵、牵强附会,问题不大。         语法和词汇，我实在不想再说了，否则，大家都要超过老李了。         如果您还对自己不放心、还有时间或者想考九十多分,以光宗耀祖的话,再按听、写、说、背四个步骤,扎扎实实的把《新概念英语》第二册、第三册和大学英语六级考试真题学一学,做到每一句话都能在听到后立刻复述和翻译,则足以成为四级大虾。         为了便于大家记忆,现给出本人总结的四级方程式:         四级及格(甚至优秀)==中学英语+12套四级题+200小时         此外,在决战四级时,还要装备一台复读机（一百多块钱的就行）或者具有复读功能的MP3、一本好的英汉词典、一本中学语法书、几个单词本、几个听写纪录本和几支彩色笔。         真的,四级就这么简单。我希望大家赶紧消灭了它,再用同样的方法考六级、考研、考托福。在考试的同时提高自己的英语水平,早日能“师夷之长技以制夷”。即便是我失业了,也心甘情愿。 (编辑:赵露)     (李国锋，北大经济学硕士。原北京新东方学校国内考试部优秀教师，现任济南新东方学校国内考试部主管兼教学教研部主管。曾师从钟道隆教授研习逆向英语，在两个月内从四级及格水平猛增至92分，并以托福、GRE绝对高分被世界名校YALE录取。主张在备考中掌握方法、培养兴趣、提高实力、增强信心、铸造辉煌。MOTTO: Doing hard things is what makes people better.

一石数鸟 全新攻略  

        这些年来,四级已成为众矢之的,出四级考题的老师们也倍受指责,以至于一个在中国外语界非常有名的狂人,在数千听众面前,大吼“四、六级考试是个屁！”学生中对四级刻骨仇恨的, 也大有人在。倘若四级有灵,一定会大声喊“我比窦娥还冤哪!”“金无足赤, 人无完人”, 四级也有缺点, 但冷静的分析一下, 四级还真是个“好同志”，至少是“七分功, 三分过“。

        四级听力的小对话，展示了一个个很实用的场景,用语又很地道，如果您能把历年来的四级考题中的小对话全部跟读、模仿、背诵下来,您的口语一定会很溜，如果您的中学基础还不是很牢固,您还可以用它来进一步学习基本词汇、基本语法。此外,在听力部分, 无论是小对话还是段子,都有少许生词,而这些词汇,如果您能做到一听就懂,放在阅读中自然是一看就会，这些词汇,将成为您的词汇大军中的“嫡系部队”,听、说、读、写、译,均可随时调遣，再以这些词为基本词汇，通过词根、词缀、同义、反义、形近、音似等多种方法，大幅度扩大词汇量。由此可见,招人不待见的四级听力,其实“浑身上下都是宝”。并且,听力题的文字答案,是四级考试中最简单的一部分,以它为突破口,先看着它,认认真真把每一个单词都搞明白,每一个句子都弄懂,再多读几遍，然后一句一句的听写,找出自己听不懂得地方和下笔写时拿不准的单词,多查字典,多问老师,再跟着录音多读,直至背过。这样,两套题下来,听力将会有质的飞跃。词汇量也会猛增数百。并且,多背诵句子、短文,对作文也大有裨益。此为第一招，看听力。

        第二招,听写听力。此时,就不要先看文字答案了,要直接一句一句的听写,听不懂、写不出的地方,多听几遍,再根据音标查一查辞典,还可以看一看选择项，找一点线索,实在写不出来,就先放它一马,但要留出位置，做出标记。一套题听写完了,再对一下答案, 最好用另一种颜色的笔,标出写错的和没有写出来的部分。再分析一下没有听写出来或听写错误的原因，是连读、弱读、失音、混同还是由于英音与美音的差别，然后跟读、背诵。听写纪录一定不能扔了,它不仅铭刻着您征战四级途中的每一个脚印,并且是您以后复习的好材料。如此再认真学上十套题,听力中18分可收入账下。

1. Typical of the grassland dwellers of the continent is the American antelope, or pronghorn.
美洲羚羊，或称叉角羚，是该大陆典型的草原动物。
2. Of the millions who saw Haley’s comet in 1986, how many people will live long enough to see it return in the twenty-first century?
1986年看见哈雷彗星的千百万人当中，有多少人能够长寿到足以目睹它在二十一世纪的回归呢？
3. Anthropologists have discovered that fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise are universally reflected in facial expressions.
人类学家们已经发现，恐惧，快乐，悲伤和惊奇都会行之于色，这在全人类是共通的。
4. Because of its irritating effect on humans, the use of phenol as a general antiseptic has been largely discontinued.
由于苯酚对人体带有刺激性作用，它基本上已不再被当作常用的防腐剂了。
5. In group to remain in existence, a profit-making organization must, in the long run, produce something consumers consider useful or desirable.
任何盈利组织若要生存，最终都必须生产出消费者可用或需要的产品。
6. The greater the population there is in a locality, the greater the need there is for water, transportation, and disposal of refuse.
一个地方的人口越多，其对水，交通和垃圾处理的需求就会越大。
7. It is more difficult to write simply, directly, and effectively than to employ flowery but vague expressions that only obscure one’s meaning.
简明，直接，有力的写作难于花哨，含混而意义模糊的表达。
8. With modern offices becoming more mechanized, designers are attempting to personalize them with warmer, less severe interiors.
随着现代办公室的日益自动化，设计师们正试图利用较为温暖而不太严肃的内部装饰来使其具有亲切感。
9. The difference between libel and slander is that libel is printed while slander is spoken.
诽谤和流言的区别在于前者是书面的，而后者是口头的。
10. The knee is the jointswheresthe thighbone meets the large bone of the lower leg.
膝盖是大腿骨和小腿胫的连接处。
11. Acids are chemical compounds that, in water solution, have a sharp taste, a corrosive action on metals, and the ability to turn certain blue vegetable dyes red.
酸是一种化合物，它在溶于水时具有强烈的气味和对金属的腐蚀性，并且能够使某些蓝色植物染料变红。
12. Billie Holiday’s reputation as a great jazz-blues singer rests on her ability to give emotional depth to her songs.
Billie Holiday’s作为一个爵士布鲁斯乐杰出歌手的名声建立在能够赋予歌曲感情深度的能力。
13. Essentially, a theory is an abstract, symbolic representation of what is conceived to be reality.
理论在本质上是对认识了的现实的一种抽象和符号化的表达。
14. Long before children are able to speak or understand a language, they communicate through facial expressions and by making noises.
儿童在能说或能听懂语言之前，很久就会通过面部表情和靠发出噪声来与人交流了。
15. Thanks to modern irrigation, crops now grow abundantly in areas swheres once nothing but cacti and sagebrush could live.
受当代灌溉(技术设施)之赐，农作物在原来只有仙人掌和荞属科植物才能生存的地方旺盛的生长。
16. The development of mechanical timepieces spurred the search for more accurate sundials with which to regulate them.
机械计时器的发展促使人们寻求更精确的日晷，以便校准机械计时器。
17. Anthropology is a science in that anthropologists use a rigorous set of methods and techniques to document observations that can be checked by others.
人类学是一门科学，因为人类学家采用一整套强有力的方法和技术来记录观测结果，而这样记录下来的观测结果是供他人核查的。
18. Fungi are important in the process of decay, which returns ingredients to the soil, enhances soil fertility, and decomposes animal debris.
真菌在腐化过程中十分重要，而腐化过程将化学物质回馈于土壤，提高其肥力，并分解动物粪便。
19. When it is struck, a tuning fork produces an almost pure tone, retaining its pitch over a long period  of time.
音叉被敲击时，产生几乎纯质的音调，其音量经久不衰。
20. Although pecans are most plentiful in the southeastern part of the United States, they are found as far north as Ohio and Illinois.
虽然美洲山河桃树最集中于美国的东南部但是在北至俄亥俄州及伊利诺州也能看见它们。
21. Eliminating problems by transferring the blame to others is often called scapegoating.
用怪罪别人的办法来解决问题通常被称为寻找替罪羊。
22. The chief foods eaten in any country depend largely on what grows best in its climate and soil.
一个国家的主要食物是什么，大体取决于什么作物在其天气和土壤条件下生长得最好。
23. Over a very large number of trials, the probability of an event’s occurring is equal to the probability that it will not occur.
在大量的实验中，某一事件发生的几率等于它不发生的几率
24. Most substance contract when they freeze so that the density of a substance’s solid is higher than the density of its liquid.
大多数物质遇冷收缩，所以他们的密度在固态时高于液态。
25. The mechanism by which brain cells store memories is not clearly understood.
大脑细胞储存记忆的机理并不为人明白。
26. By the middle of the twentieth century, painters and sculptors in the United States had begun to exert a great worldwide influence over art.
到了二十一世纪中叶，美国画家和雕塑家开始在世界范围内对艺术产生重大影响。
27. In the eastern part of New Jersey lies the city of Elizabeth, a major shipping and manufacturing center.
伊丽莎白市，一个重要的航运和制造业中心，坐落于新泽西州的东部。
28. Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman medical doctor in the United States, founded the New York Infirmary, an institution that has always had a completely female medical staff.
Elizabeth Blackwell，美国第一个女医生，创建了员工一直为女性纽约诊所。
29. Alexander Graham Bell once told his family that he would rather be remembered as a teacher of the deaf than as the inventor of the telephone.
Alexander Graham Bell曾告诉家人，他更愿意让后人记住他是聋子的老师，而非电话的发明者。
30. Because its leaves remain green long after being picked, rosemary became associated with the idea of remembrance.
采摘下的迷迭香树叶常绿不衰，因此人们把迷迭香树与怀念联系在一起。
31. Although apparently rigid, bones exhibit a degree of elasticity that enables the skeleton to withstand considerable impact.
骨头看起来是脆硬的，但它也有一定的弹性，使得骨骼能够承受相当的打击。
32. That xenon could not form chemical compounds was once believed by scientists.
科学家曾相信：氙气是不能形成化合物的。
33. Researchsintosthe dynamics of storms is directed toward improving the ability to predict these events and thus to minimize damage and avoid loss of life.
对风暴动力学的研究是为了提高风暴预测从而减少损失，避免人员伤亡。
34. The elimination of inflation would ensure that the amount of money used in repaying a loan would have the same value as the amount of money borrowed.
消除通货膨胀应确保还贷的钱应与所贷款的价值相同。
35. Futurism, an early twentieth-century movement in art, rejected all traditions and attempted to glorify contemporary life by emphasizing the machine and motion.
未来主义，二十世纪早期的一个艺术思潮。拒绝一切传统，试图通过强调机械和动态来美化生活。
36. One of the wildest and most inaccessible parts of the United States is the Everglades swheres wildlife is abundant and largely protected.
Everglades是美国境内最为荒凉和人迹罕至的地区之一，此处有大量的野生动植物而且大多受(法律)保护。
37. Lucretia Mott’s influence was so significant that she has been credited by some authorities as the originator of feminism in the United States.
Lucretia Mott’s的影响巨大，所以一些权威部门认定她为美国女权运动的创始人。
38. The activities of the international marketing researcher are frequently much broader than those of the domestic marketer.
国际市场研究者的活动范围常常较国内市场研究者广阔。
39. The continental divide refers to an imaginary line in the North American Rockies that divides the waters flowingsintosthe Atlantic Ocean from those flowingsintosthe Pacific.
大陆分水岭是指北美洛矶山脉上的一道想象线，该线把大西洋流域和太平洋流域区分开来。
40. Studies of the gravity field of the Earth indicate that its crust and mantle yield when unusual weight is placed on them.
对地球引力的研究表明，在不寻常的负荷之下地壳和地幔会发生位移。
41. The annual worth of Utah’s manufacturing is greater than that of its mining and farming combined.
尤它州制造业的年产值大于其工业和农业的总和。
42. The wallflower is so called because its weak stems often grow on walls and along stony cliffs for support.
墙花之所以叫墙花，是因为其脆弱的枝干经常要靠墙壁或顺石崖生长，以便有所依附。
43. It is the interaction between people, rather than the events that occur in their lives, that is the main focus of social psychology.
社会心理学的主要焦点是人与人之间的交往，而不是他们各自生活中的事件。
44. No social crusade aroused Elizabeth Williams’enthusiasm more than the expansion of educational facilities for immigrants to the United States.
给美国的新移民增加教育设施比任何社会运动都更多的激发了Elizabeth Williams的热情。
45. Quails typically have short rounded wings that enable them to springsintosfull flight instantly when disturbed in their hiding places.
典型的鹌鹑都长有短而圆的翅膀，凭此他们可以在受惊时一跃而起，飞离它们的躲藏地。
46. According to anthropologists, the earliest ancestors of humans that stood upright resembled chimpanzees facially, with sloping foreheads and protruding brows.
根据人类学家的说法，直立行走的人的鼻祖面部轮廓与黑猩猩相似，额头后倾，眉毛突出。
47. Not until 1866 was the fully successful transatlantic cable finally laid.
直到1866年第一条横跨大西洋的电缆才完全成功的架通。
48. In his writing, John Crowe Ransom describes what he considers the spiritual barrenness of society brought about by science and technology.
John Crowe Ransom在他的著作中描述了他认为是由科学技术给社会带来的精神贫困。
49. Children with parents whose guidance is firm, consistent, and rational are inclined to possess high levels of self-confidence.
父母的教导如果坚定，始终如一和理性，孩子就有可能充满自信。
50. The ancient Hopewell people of North America probably cultivated corn and other crops, but hunting and gathering were still of critical importance in their economy.
北美远古的Hopewell人很可能种植了玉米和其他农作物，但打猎和采集对他们的经济贸易仍是至关重要的。
51. Using many symbols makes it possible to put a large amount of information on a single map.
使用多种多样的符号可以在一张地图里放进大量的信息。
52. Anarchism is a term describing a cluster of doctrines and attitudes whose principal uniting feature is the belief that government is both harmful and unnecessary.
无政府主义这个词描述的是一堆理论和态度，它们的主要共同点在于相信政府是有害的，没有必要的。
53. Probably no man had more effect on the daily lives of most people in the Untied States than did Henry Ford a pioneer in automobile production.
恐怕没有谁对大多数美国人的日常生活影响能超过汽车生产的先驱亨利.福特。
54. The use of well-chosen nonsense words makes possible the testing of many basic hypotheses in the field of language learning.
使用精心挑选的无意义词汇，可以检验语言学科里许多基本的假定。
55. The history of painting is a fascinating chain of events that probably began with the very first pictures ever made.
油画历史是由一连串的迷人事件组成，其源头大概可以上溯到最早的图画。
56. Perfectly matched pearls, strungsintosa necklace, bring a far higher price than the same pearls told individually.
相互般配的珍珠，串成一条项链，就能卖到比单独售出好得多的价钱。
57. During the eighteenth century, Little Turtle was chief of the Miami tribe whose territory became what is now Indiana and Ohio.
十八世纪时，“小乌龟”是迈阿密部落的酋长，该部落的地盘就是今天的印第安那州和俄亥俄州。
58. Among almost seven hundred species of bamboo, some are fully grown at less than a foot high, while others can grow three feet in twenty-four hours.
在竹子的近七百个品种中，有的全长成还不到一英尺，有的却能在二十四小时内长出三英尺。
59. Before staring on a sea voyage, prudent navigators learn the sea charts, study the sailing directions, and memorize lighthouse locations to prepare themselves for any conditions they might encounter.
谨慎的航海员在出航前，会研究航向，记录的灯塔的位置，以便对各种可能出现的情况做到有备无患。
60. Of all the economically important plants, palms have been the least studied.
在所有的经济作物中，棕榈树得到的研究最少。
61. Buyers and sellers should be aware of new developments in technology can and does affect marketing activities.
购买者和销售者都应该留意技术的新发展，原因很简单，因为技术能够并且已经影响着营销活动。
62. The application of electronic controls made possible by the microprocessor and computer storage have multiplied the uses of the modern typewriter.
电脑储存和由于电子微处理机得以实现的电控运用成倍的增加了现代打字机的功能。
63. The human skeleton consists of more than two hundred bones bound together by tough and relatively inelastic connective tissues called ligaments.
人类骨骼有二百多块骨头组成，住些骨头石油坚韧而相对缺乏弹性的，被称为韧带的结蒂组连在一起。
64. The pigmentation of a pearl is influenced by the type of oyster in which it develops and by the depth, temperature, and the salt content of the water in which the oyster lives.
珍珠的色泽受到作为其母体牡蛎种类及牡蛎生活水域的深度，温度和含盐度的制约
65. Although mockingbirds superbly mimic the songs and calls of many birds, they can nonetheless be quickly identified as mockingbirds by certain aural clues.
尽管模仿鸟学很多种鸟的鸣叫声惟妙惟肖，但人类还是能够依其声音上的线索很快识别它们。
66. Not only can walking fish live out of water, but they can also travel short distances over land.
鲇鱼不仅可以离开水存活，还可以在岸上短距离移动。
67. Scientists do not know why dinosaurs became extinct, but some theories postulate that changers in geography, climate, and sea levels were responsible.
科学家不知道恐龙为何绝种了，但是一些理论推断是地理，气候和海平面的变化造成的。
68. The science of horticulture, in which the primary concerns are maximum yield and superior quality, utilizes information derived from other sciences.
主要目的在于丰富和优质的农艺学利用了其他科学的知识。
69. Snow aids farmers by keeping heart in the lower ground levels, thereby saving the seeds from freezing.
雪对农民是一种帮助，因为它保持地层土壤的温度，使种子不致冻死。
70. Even though the precise qualities of hero in literary words may vary over time, the basic exemplary function of the hero seems to remain constant.
历代文学作品中的英雄本色虽各有千秋，但其昭世功力却是恒古不变的。
71. People in prehistoric times created paints by grinding materials such as plants and claysintospower and then adding water.
史前的人们制造颜料是将植物和泥土等原料磨成粉末，然后加水。
72. Often very annoying weeds, goldenrods crowd out less hardy plants and act as hosts to many insect pests.
黄菊花通常令人生厌，它挤走不那么顽强的植物，并找来很多害虫。
73. Starting around 7000 B.C., and for the next four thousand years, much of the Northern Hemisphere experienced temperatures warmer than at present.
大约从公元前七千年开始，在四千年当中，北半球的温度比现在高。
74. When Henry Ford first sought financial backing for making cars, the very notion of farmers and clerks owning automobiles was considered ridiculous.
当亨利.福特最初制造汽车为寻求资金支持时，农民和一般职员也能拥有汽车的想法被认为是可笑的。
75. Though once quite large, the population of the bald eagle across North America has drastically declined in the past forty years.
北美秃头鹰的数量一度很多，但在近四十年中全北美的秃头鹰数量急剧下降。
76. The beaver chews down trees to get food and material with which to build its home.
水獭啃倒树木，以便取食物并获得造窝的材料。
77. Poodles were once used as retrievers in duck hunting, but the American Kennel Club does not consider them sporting dogs because they are now primarily kept as pets.
长卷毛狗曾被用作猎鸭时叼回猎物的猎犬，但是美国Kennel Club却不承认它们为猎犬，因为它们现在大多数作为宠物饲养。
78. As a result of what is now known in physics and chemistry, scientists have been able to make important discoveries in biology and medicine.
物理学和化学的一个成果是使得科学家们能在生物学和医学上获得重大发现。
79. The practice of making excellent films based on rather obscure novels has been going on so long in the United States as to constitute a tradition.
根据默默无闻的小说制作优秀影片在美国由来已久，已经成为传统。
80. Since the consumer considers the best fruit to be that which is the most attractive, the grower must provide products that satisfy the discerning eye.
因为顾客认为最好的水果应该看起来也是最漂亮的，所以种植者必须提供能满足挑剔眼光的产品。
81. Television the most pervasive and persuasive of modern technologies, marked by rapid change and growth, is movingsintosa new era, an era of extraordinary sophistication and versatility, which promises to reshape our lives and our world.
电视，这项从迅速变化和成长为标志的最普及和最有影响力的现代技术，正在步入一个新时代，一个极为成熟和多样化的时代，这将重塑我们的生活和世界。
82. Television is more than just an electronics; it is a means of expression, as well as a vehicle for communication, and as such becomes a powerful tool for reaching other human beings.
电视不仅仅是一件电器；它是表达的手段和交流的载体并因此成为联系他人的有力工具。
83. Even more shocking is the fact that the number and rate of imprisonment have more than doubled over the past twenty years, and recidivism------that is the rate for rearrest------is more than 60 percent.
更让人吃惊的事实是监禁的数目和比例在过去的二十年中翻了一番还有余，以及累犯率——即再次拘押的比例——为百分之六十强。
84. His teaching began at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but William Rainey Harper lured him to the new university of Chicago, swhereshe remained officially for exactly a generation andswhereshis students in advanced composition found him terrifyingly frigid in the classroom but sympathetic and understanding in their personal conferences.
他的教书生涯始于麻省理工学院，但是William Rainey Harper把他吸引到了新成立的芝加哥大学。他在那里正式任职长达整整一代人的时间。他的高级作文课上的学生觉得他在课上古板得可怕，但私下交流却富有同情和理解。
85. The sloth pays such little attention to its personal hygiene that green algae grow on its coarse hair and communities of a parasitic moth live in the depths of its coat producing caterpillars which graze on its mouldy hair. Its muscles are such that it is quits incapable of moving at a speed of over a kilometer an hour even over the shortest distances and the swiftest movement it can make is a sweep of its hooked arm.
树獭即不讲究卫生，以至于它粗糙的毛发上生出绿苔，成群的寄生蛾生长在它的皮毛深处，变成毛毛虫，并以它的脏毛为食。她的肌肉不能让他哪怕在很短的距离以内以每小时一公里的速度移动。它能做的最敏捷的动作就是挥一挥它弯曲的胳膊。
86. Artificial flowers are used for scientific as well as for decorative purposes. They are made from a variety of materials, such as way and glass, so skillfully that they can scarcely be distinguished from natural flowers.
人造花卉即可用于科学目的，也可用于装饰目的，它们可以用各种各样的材料制成，臂如蜡和玻璃；其制作如此精巧，几乎可以以假乱真。
87. Three years of research at an abandoned coal mine in Argonne, Illinois, have resulted in findings that scientists believe can help reclaim thousands of mine disposal sites that scar the coal-richregions of the United States.
在伊利诺州Angonne市的一个废弃煤矿的三年研究取得了成果，科学家们相信这些成果可以帮助改造把美国产煤区弄得伤痕累累的数千个旧煤场。
88. When the persuading and the planning for the western railroads had finally been completed, the really challenging task remained: the dangerous, sweaty, backbreaking, brawling business of actually building the lines.
当有关西部铁路的说服和规划工作终于完成后，真正艰难的任务还没有开始；即危险，吃力，需要伤筋动骨和吵吵嚷嚷的建造这些铁路的实际工作。
89. Because of the space crunch, the Art Museum has become increasingly cautious in considering acquisitions and donations of art, in some cases passing up opportunities to strengthen is collections.
由于空间不足，艺术博物馆在考虑购买和接受捐赠的艺术品是越来越慎重，有些情况下放弃其进一步改善收藏的机会。
90. The United States Constitution requires that President be a natural-born citizen, thirty-five years of age or older, who has lived in the United States for a minimum of fourteen years.
美国宪法要求总统是生于美国本土的公民，三十五岁以上，并且在美国居住了至少十四年。
91. Arid regions in the southwestern United States have become increasingly inviting playgrounds for the growing number of recreation seekers who own vehicles such as motorcycles or powered trail bikes and indulge in hill-climbing contests or in caving new trails in the desert.
.美国西部的不毛之地正成为玩耍的地方，对越来越多拥有摩托车或越野单车类车辆的，喜欢放纵于爬坡比赛或开辟新的沙漠通道的寻欢作乐者具有不断增长的吸引力。
92. Stone does decay, and so tools of long ago have remained when even the bones of the man who made them have disappeared without trace.
石头不会腐烂，所以以前的(石器)工具能保存下来，虽然它们的制造者已经消失的无影无踪
93. Insects would make it impossible for us to live in the world; they would devour all our crops and kill our flocks and herds, if it were not for the protection we get from insect-eating animals.
昆虫就将会使我们无法在这个世界上居住；如果我们没有受到以昆虫为食的动物的保护，昆虫就会吞嚼掉我们所有的庄稼并杀死我们饲养的禽兽。
94. It is true that during their explorations they often faced difficulties and dangers of the most perilous nature, equipped in a manner which would make a modern climber shudder at the thought, but they did not go out of their way to court such excitement.
确实，他们在探险中遇到了极具威胁性的困难和危险，而他们的装备会让一个现代登山者想一想都会浑身颤栗。不过他们并不是刻意去追求刺激的。
95. There is only one difference between an old man and a young one: the young man has a glorious future before him and old one has a splendid future behind him: and maybe that is swheresthe rub is.
老人和年轻人之间只有一个区别：年轻人的前面有辉煌的未来，老年人灿烂的未来却已在它们身后。这也许就是困难之所在。
96. I find young people exciting. They have an air of freedom, and they have not a dreary commitment to mean ambitions or love comfort. They are not anxious social climbers, and they have no devotion to material things.
我们位年强人振奋。它们带有自由的气息，他们不会为狭隘的野心和贪婪享受而孜孜以求。他们不是焦虑的向上爬的人，他们不会对物质性的东西难舍难分。
97. I am always amazed when I hear people saying that sport creates goodwill between the nations, and that if only the common peoples of the world could meet one another at football or cricket, they would have no inclination to meet on the battlefield.
每次我听说体育运动能够在国家间建立起友好感情，说世界各地的普通人只要能在足球场或板球场上相遇就会没有兴趣在战场上相遇的话，我都倍感诧异。
98. It is impossible to say simply for the fun and exercise: as soon as the question of prestige arises, as soon as you feel that you and some larger unit will be disgraced if you lose, the most savage combative instincts are around.
没有可能仅仅为了娱乐或锻炼而运动：一旦有了问题，一旦你觉得你输了你和你所属团体会有失体面时，你最野蛮的好斗本能就会被激发出来。
99. It has been found that certain bats emit squeaks and by receiving the echoes, they can locate and steer clear of obstacles------or locate flying insects on which they feed. This echo-location in bats is often compared with radar, the principle of which is similar.
人们已经发现，某些蝙蝠发出尖叫声并靠接受回响来锁定和避免障碍物——或者找到它们赖以为生的昆虫。蝙蝠这种回响定位法常拿来和原理与之很相近似的雷达相比。
100. As the time and cost of making a clip drop to a few days and a few hundred dollars, engineers may soon be free to let their imaginations soar without being penalized by expensive failure.
随着芯片制造时间和费用降低到了几天和几百美元，工程师们可能很快可以任他们的想象驰骋而不会被昂贵的失败所惩罚。

1.Many critics of Eamily Bronte’s novel Wuthering Heights see its second part as a counterpoint that comments on, if it does not reverse, the first part, where a “romantic” reading receives more confirmation.

2.The historian Frederick J. Turner wrote in the 1890’s that the agrarian discontent that had been developing steadily in the United States since about 1870 had been precipitated by the closing of the internal frontier——that is, the depletion of available new land needed for further expansion of the American farming system.

3.It is true that a high proportion of the newly farmed land was suitable only for grazing and dry farming, but agricultural practices had become sufficiently advanced to make it possible to increase the profitability of farming by utilizing even these relatively barren lands.

4.The emphasis given by both scholars and statesmen to the presumed disappearance of the American frontier helped to obscure the great importance of changes in the conditions and consequences of international trade that occurred during the second half of the nineteenth century.

5.The use of heat pumps has been held back largely by skepticism about advertisers’ claims that heat pumps can provide as many as two units of thermal energy for each unit of electrical energy used, thus apparently contradicting the principle of energy conservation.

6.In brief, her works neither elevate nor instruct. This restraint largely explains her lack of popular success during her lifetime, even if her talent did not go completely unrecognized by her eighteenth-century French contemporaries.

7.In the early 1950’s, historians who studied pre-industrial Europe (which we may define here as Europe in the period from roughly 1300 to 1800) began, for the first time in large numbers, to investigate more of the preindustrial European population than the 2 or 3 percent who comprised the political and social elite：the kings, generals, judges, nobles, bishops, and local magnates who had hitherto usually filled history books.

8.Islamic law is a phenomenon so different from all other forms of law——notwithstanding, of course, a considerable and inevitable number of coincidences with one or the other of them as far as subject matter and positive enactment are concerned——that its study is indispensable in order to appreciate adequately the full range of possible legal phenomena.

9.Though historically there is a discernible break between Jewish law of the sovereign state of ancient Israel and of the Diaspora (the dispersion of Jewish people after the conquest of Israel)，the spirit of the legal matter in later parts of the Old Testament is very close to that of the Talmud, one of the primary codifications of Jewish law in the Diaspora.

10.Islam, on the other hand, represented a radical breakaway from the Arab paganism that preceded it；Islamic law is the result of an examination, from a religious angle, of legal subject matter that was far from uniform, comprising as it did the various components of the laws of pre-Islamic Arabia and numerous legal elements taken over from the non-Arab peoples of the conquered territories.

11.Jewish law was buttressed by the cohesion of the community, reinforced by pressure from outside；its rules are the direct expression of this feeling of cohesion, tending toward the accommodation of dissent.

12.While the new doctrine seems almost certainly correct, the one papyrus fragment raises the specter that another may be unearthed, showing, for instance, that it was a posthumous production of the Danaid tetralogy which bested Sophocles, and throwing the date once more into utter confusion.

13.This is unlikely to happen, but it warns usthat perhaps the most salutary feature of the papyrus scrap is its message of the extreme difficulty of classifying and categorizing rigidly the development of a creative artist.

14.Traditionally, pollination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process marked by random events in which the vagaries of the wind are compensated for by the generation of vast quantities of pollen, so that the ultimate production of new seeds is assured at the expense of producing much more pollen than is actually used.

15.Because the potential hazards pollen grains are subject to as they are transported over long distances are enormous, wind-pollinated plants have, in the view above, compensated for the ensuing loss of pollen through happenstance by virtue of producing an amount of pollen that is one to three orders of magnitude greater than the amount produced by species pollinated by insects.

16.They conclude that such dramatic technological innovations as the spinning jenny, the sewing machine, the typewriter, and the vacuum cleaner have not resulted in equally dramatic social changes in women"s economic position or in the prevailing evaluation of women"s work.

17.The employment of young women in textile mills during the Industrial Revolution was largely an extension of an older pattern of employment of young, single women as domestics.

18.It was not the change in office technology, but rather the separation of secretarial work, previously seen as an apprenticeship for beginning managers, from administrative work that in the 1880"s created a new class of "dead-end" jobs, thenceforth considered "women"s work."

19.The increase in the numbers of married women employed outside the home in the twentieth century had less to do with the mechanization of housework and an increase in leisure time for these women than it did with their own economic necessity and with high marriage rates that shrank the available pool of single women workers, previously, in many cases, the only women employers would hire.

20.Fundamentally, however, the conditions under which women"s work have changed little since before the Industrial Revolution: the segregation of occupations by gender, lower pay for women as a group, jobs that require relatively low levels of skill and offer women little opportunity for advancement all persist, while women"s household labor remains demanding.

21.Disputes occurred, of course, among those who remained on the rebel side, but the extraordinary social mobility of eighteenth-century American society (with the obvious exception of slaves) usually prevented such disputes from hardening along class lines.

22.Social structure was in fact so fluid—though recent statistics suggest a narrowing of economic opportunity as the latter half of the century progressed—that to talk about social classes at all requires the use of loose economic categories such as rich, poor, and middle class, or eighteenth-century designations like "the better sort."

23.Although undertones of class conflict existed beneath such hostility, the opposition was primarily geographical. Sectional conflict—which also existed between North and South—deserves further investigation.

24.Yet those who stress the achievement of a general consensus among the colonists cannot fully understand that consensus without understanding the conflicts that had to be overcome or repressed in order to reach it.

25.The recent, apparently successful, prediction by mathematical models of an appearance of EI Nino—the warm ocean current that periodically develops along the Pacific coast of South America—has excited researchers.

26.Taking months to traverse the Pacific, Rossby waves march to the western boundary of the Pacific basin, which is modeled as a smooth wall but in reality consists of quite irregular island chains, such as, the Philippines and Indonesia.

27.Such philosophical concerns as the mind-body problem or, more generally, the nature of human knowledge they believe, are basic human questions whose tentative philosophical solutions have served as the necessary foundations on which all other intellectual speculation has rested.

28.When, in the seventeenth century, Descartes and Hobbes rejected medieval philosophy, they did not think of themselves, as modern philosophers do, as proposing a new and better philosophy, but rather as furthering “the warfare between science and theology.”

29.They were fighting, albeit discreetly, to open the intellectual world to the new science and to liberate intellectual life from ecclesiastical philosophy and envisioned their work as contributing to the growth, not of philosophy, but of research in mathematics and physics.

30.This link between philosophical interests and scientific practice persisted until the nineteenth century, when decline in ecclesiastical power over scholarship and changes in the nature of science provoked the final separation of philosophy from both.

31.The demarcation of philosophy from science was facilitated by the development in the early nineteenth century of a new notion, that philosophy’s core interest should be epistemology, the general explanation of what it means to know something.

32.Modern philosophers now trace that notion back at least to Descartes and Spinoza, but it was not explicitly articulated until the late eighteenth century, by Kant, and did not become built into the structure of academic institutions and the standard self-descriptions of philosophy professors until the late nineteenth century.

33.Metaphysics, philosophy’s traditional core—considered as the most general description of how the heavens and the earth are put together—had been rendered almost completely meaningless by the spectacular progress of physics.

34.Kant, however, by focusing philosophy on the problem of knowledge, managed to replace metaphysics with epistemology, and thus to transform the notion of philosophy as “queen of sciences” into the new notion of philosophy as a separate, foundational discipline.

35.Under the force of this view, it was perhaps inevitable that the art of rhetoric should pass from the status of being regarded as of questionable worth (because although it might be both a source of pleasure and a means to urge people to right action, it might also be a means to distort truth and a source of misguided action) to the status of being wholly condemned.

36.But those who reject the idea of rhetoric because they believe it deals in lies and who at the same time hope to move people to action, must either be liars themselves or be very naive; pure logic has never been a motivating force unless it has been subordinated to human purposes, feelings, and desires, and thereby ceased to be pure logic.

37.Calculations of the density of alloys based on Bernal-type models of the alloys metal component agreed fairly well with the experimentally determined values from measurements  on alloys consisting of a noble metal together with a metalloid, such as alloys of palladium and silicon, or alloys consisting of iron, phosphorus, and carbon, although small discrepancies remained.

38.One of the most promising properties of glassy metals is their high strength combined with high malleability. In usual crystalline materials, one finds an inverse relation between the two properties, whereas for many practical applications  simultaneous presence of both properties is desirable.

39.One residual obstacle to practical applications that is likely to be overcome is the fact that glassy metals will crystallize at relatively low temperatures when heated slightly.

40.Yet Walzer"s argument, however deficient, does point to one of the most serious weaknesses of capitalism—namely, that it brings to predominant positions in a society people who, no matter how legitimately they have earned their material rewards, often lack those other qualities that evoke affection or admiration.

41.Some even argue plausibly that this weakness may be irremediable：in any society that, like a capitalist society, seeks to become ever wealthier in material terms  disproportionate rewards are bound to flow to the people who are instrumental in producing the increase in its wealth.

42.There is a growing realization that the only effective way to achieve further reductions in vehicle emissions—short of a massive shift away from the private automobile—is to replace conventional diesel fuel and gasoline with cleaner-burning fuels such as compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, ethanol, or methanol.

43.These dramatic elements, along with an intensely social or political purpose and the use of a mixture of Spanish, English, and Mexican American dialects in the dialogues, which    realistically capture the flavor of Mexican American conversation, are still characteristic both of the acto and of most other forms of Mexican American theater today.

44.The improvised comic satire of the actos is often attributed to Valdez" study of the Italian commedia dell" arte of the sixteenth century, although some critics see it as a direct reflection of the comic and improvisational qualities of the more contemporary and local carpas of Mexican theater.

45.The Italian influence is likely, whatever Valdez immediate source: the Mexican carpas themselves are said to have originated from the theater pieces of a sixteenth-century Spanish writer inspired by encounters with Italian commedia dell"arte troupes on tour in Spain.

46.But the recent discovery of detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the flippers in all three groups undermines the attempt to explain away superficial resemblance as due to convergent evolution—the independent development of similarities between unrelated groups in response to similar environmental pressures.

47.In humans excessive intake ( for adults, over 4 milligrams per day) over many years can lead to skeletal fluorosis, a well-defined skeletal disorder, and in some plant species, fluoride is more toxic than ozone, sulfur dioxide, or pesticides.

48.And while fluoride intake from water and air can be evaluated relatively easily, it is much harder to estimate how much a given population ingests from foodstuffs because of the wide variations in individual eating habits and in fluoride concentrations in foodstuffs.

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“四、六级阅读长难句”中文译文

1.许多艾米丽·勃朗特的小说《呼啸山庄》的评论家，把小说的第二部分看作一种对比【对照物】，它对第一部分作出评论，即使没有把第一部分逆转，在小说第一部分中，一种“浪漫的”的阅读能获得更多的确认。

2.史学家Frederick J. Turner在19世纪90年代写到，美国从1870年以来一直在持续发展的农民不满，被加剧了【突然落下，加速】，由于关闭国内边疆【停止西部垦荒】——也就是说，可以利用的新土地被耗尽了，对于美国农业系统的进一步扩展。

3.确实【让步口气】，很大一部分新开垦的土地只能够用于放牧和旱作，但是【语气上转回来】，农业手段已经非常进步，完全可以增加农业的收入，即使利用这些相对贫脊的土地。

4.学者和政治家强调，美国边疆消失的假设【观点】，这种强调模糊【掩盖】了变化的巨大重要性，在国际贸易的情况和后果方面发生了变化，在19世纪的后半期。

5.热泵（heat pump）的使用受到阻碍，主要是因为怀疑广告商的宣称，广告商称，热泵可以产生两个单位的热能，对于所使用的每个单位电能，因此，显然与能量守恒原理相违背。

6.简而言之，她的作品既没有提高【升华】，也没有说教。这种克制在很大程度上解释了她缺乏普遍的成功，在活着的时候，即使她的艺术天才并没有被完全地否认，被18世纪法国的同时代人。

7.五十年代早期，研究工业化以前欧洲的历史学家（此处我们把它定义成1300年到1800年这一时期的欧洲），这些历史学家开始，首次以众多的人数，调查工业化以前欧洲人口中的大多数，而不是那些百分之二或三的人口，这些人构成了政治和社会的精英：国王、将军、法官、贵族、主教、以及地方巨头，正是这部分人一直到那时为止普遍充满了历史书籍。

8.伊斯兰法是一种现象，它如此不同于所有其它法律形式——当然，虽然存在大量的而且不可避免的巧合【相同内容】，对于其它法律，当考虑到主题内容和有正面性的法规时候——以致于对它进行研究是不可缺少的，为了充分理解有可能的法律现象的全部范围。

9.尽管从历史角度看，犹太法律有一个明显的中断，在古代以色列君主国家与流散时期（犹太人四处流散，在以色列被征服后），但是，法律内容的精神在《旧约全书》后面部分中，非常类似于《犹太法典》，后者是流散时期犹太法律的主要法典。

10.伊斯兰教，在另一方面【相反方面】，代表着一种本质上的决裂，与过去存在的阿拉伯异教信仰；伊斯兰法是考察的结果，从宗教的角度，对法律的主题内容，这些内容远远不是统一的，而这些法律内容实际上是由前伊斯兰阿拉伯国家法律的各种因素，以及由被征服土地上非阿拉伯民族的大量法律因素所构成。

11.犹太法受到社会凝聚力的支持，由于外界的压力而强化；它的法规直接表现了这种凝聚力的感情，倾向于调和【住宿】不同意见。

12.尽管新的学说看起来几乎肯定是正确的，但是这张莎草纸的碎片还是引起了恐慌，即另一块碎片有可能被挖掘出来，证明，比如说，《妇女》是一部作者死后出版的《Danaid四部曲》的作品，曾经打败了索福克勒斯，上述情况将把创作年代再一次抛到极度混乱之中。

13.这种情况不大可能发生，但是它警告我们，莎草纸碎片最有帮助的特征是它所表达的信息，要想对一个有创造性的作家的发展过程做出划分和归类是极为困难的。

14.传统上来讲，风媒传粉一直被看作是一个繁殖过程，它以随机事件为标志，在此过程中，风的奇怪行为被大量花粉的产生所补偿，因此，最终新种子的产生被保证，是依靠产生的花粉数量要大大超过实际的使用量。

15.因为，潜在的危险，花粉粒在长途运输中所要遭受的潜在危险是巨大的，风媒传粉的植物，按上述观点来看，补偿了在偶然事件中伴随产生的花粉损失，通过的优点是，生产出的花粉数量比那些依靠昆虫传粉的植物所产生的花粉数量大一到三个数量级。

16.他们得出结论，这些戏剧性的技术创新，比如纺织机、缝纫机、打字机、以及真空吸尘器，并没有产生相同的戏剧性的社会变化，在妇女的经济地位方面，或者在普遍的对妇女工作的评价方面。

17.工业革命期间，雇佣年轻妇女到纺织厂工作，这在很大程度上是一种延伸，雇佣年轻的、单身女性作为女佣人这种古老模式的延伸。

18.不是办公室技术的改变，而是秘书工作的分离，过去秘书工作被看作是新来的经理们的一种学徒一样的实习，从管理工作中分离，在十九世纪八十年代，产生了新的一种“没前途”的职业，从此以后，被认为是“女人的工作。”

19.二十世纪已婚妇女在家庭以外工作的人数不断增加，这与家务的机械化以及这些妇女空闲时间的增加没有多大关系，更多地是与妇女自身的经济需要以及较高的结婚率有关，较高的结婚率使能雇佣的单身妇女的总量减少，过去，在多数情况下，（单身女性）是唯一被雇佣的妇女。

20.但是，从根本上来讲，妇女的工作状况几乎没有变化，从工业革命之前一直到现在：按照性别区分的职业，对妇女整体较低的工资，工作，要求相对比较低的技能，并且几乎不给妇女提供晋升的机会的工作，上述三点仍然存在，同时，妇女的家务劳动仍然要求很高。

21.当然，争吵还会发生在造反派之间，争执在所难免，但是，十八世纪美国社会的巨大流动性（很明显除了奴隶之外）经常可以阻止这些争吵沿着阶级路线恶化。

22.社会结构事实上是如此具有流动性——尽管最近的数据表明，存在一个越来越狭窄的经济机会，随着该世纪后半期地发展——以致于要谈论社会阶层的话，就必须采用一些模糊的经济分类，比如富人、穷人、和中产阶级，或者十八世纪的名称，象“比较好的一类”。

23.尽管，在这种敌对态度下面存在阶级冲突的低音（不太明显），但是这种对抗主要是地区性的。地区性冲突——也存在于北方与南方之间——值得进一步研究。

24.但是，那些强调完成（实现）的历史学家，殖民者之间普遍一致意见的实现，这些历史学家不能够完全理解那种一致意见，如果不明白，冲突是被克服或者压制之后，为了达成一致意见。

25.最近，显然成功的预测,通过数学模型，关于El Nino现象——温暖的洋流，周期性地出现在南美洲太平洋沿岸——这个预测使研究者很兴奋。

26.用了几个月横穿太平洋，R波到达太平洋海盆的西部边界，被模拟成一堵平滑的墙壁，但是实际上，是由很不规则的岛屿链组成，比如，菲律宾群岛和印度尼西亚群岛。

27.这种有关于精神与肉体的考虑，或者更普遍地讲，人类知识的本质，他们相信，都是基本的人类问题，其探索性的哲学答案已经成为一个必要的基础，其它所有的智力思考都是以此为基础的。

28.在十七世纪，当笛卡尔和霍布斯抛弃中世纪哲学 的时候，他们并没有象现代哲学家那样，认为自己是在提出一种全新的和更好的哲学，而是认为自己是在促进“科学与神学的战争”。

29.他们战斗，尽管是小心翼翼的，是为了使思想世界向新科学敞开大门，并且把思想生活从教会哲学中解放出来，他们把自己的工作看成是对发展作出的贡献，不是在对哲学的贡献，而是对数学和物理学的贡献。

30.这种哲学兴趣与科学实践之间的联系一直持续到十九世纪，这时候，教会压制学术界的力量已经衰退，以及科学在性质上的变化，导致了哲学与这两者的最终分离。

31.哲学从科学中分离出来，受到十九世纪早期一种新观念发展的推动，这个观念是，哲学的核心兴趣应该是认识论，即对认识事物作出一般性解释。

32.现代哲学家把这个观察至少追溯到笛卡尔和斯宾诺莎,但是，直到十八世纪晚期，才由康德（Kant）明确地提出来，并且直到十九世纪晚期才被加入到学术机构的框架中，才被加入到哲学教授的标准自我描述中。

33.形而上学，作为哲学的传统核心——被认为是对天与地是如何结合在一起的最一般的描述——已经被壮观的物理学发展搞得几乎完全没有意义了。

34.但是，康德通过把哲学汇聚到认识的问题上，用认识论取代了形而上学，并且因此把哲学从“科学之王”的观念，转变为一门独立的、基础的学科的新观念。

35.在这种观点下，下文是不可避免的，修辞艺术从被认为是有可疑的价值的地位（因为尽管它可能是快乐的来源，和促使人们正确行动的方法，但是，它也可能是歪曲事实的手段，和被误导的行为的来源）转变到彻底被谴责的地位。

36.但是那些拒绝修辞思想的人，他们认为修辞是在说谎，以及那些同时想要打动别人的人，要么自己是撒谎者，要么就是天真幼稚；纯粹的逻辑从来不具有说服力，除非它服从于人类的目的、情感、以及欲望，这样一来它也就不再是纯粹的逻辑了。

37.对于合金密度的计算，以伯纳尔建立的金属模型为基础的计算，很大程度上等同于实验中测量的结果，测量是针对于贵重金属和非金属的合金，比如说，钯和硅的合金，或者由铁、磷、和碳组成的合金，尽管还存在一些小的差异。

38.玻璃金属的一个最有前途的特性，是它的高强度与高延展性相结合。在普通的晶体材料中，人们会发现这两种性质之间的相反关系，但是对于许多实际应用来说，两种特性的同时存在才是人们所追求的。

39.剩下的障碍，对于实际应用来说，一个有可能被克服的障碍，是下面的事实，玻璃金属将会结晶，在相对低的温度下，当被稍微加热的时候。

40.但是Walzer的论点，虽然很不完善，却真正指出了资本主义最严重的一个弱点——也就是，它把一些人放到社会的主导地位，这些人无论用怎样合法的方式获得了其物质报酬，却常常缺少其它的品质（能力），能唤起别人的爱戴和赞美的能力。

41.一些人甚至很有道理地指出，这个弱点可能是无法补救的：在任何类似于资本主义的社会，它始终追求越来越富有，在物质方面，不成比例的报酬肯定会流到那些人中，这些人对增加社会财富有帮助。

42.人们逐渐认识到，唯一有效的方法来进一步减少车辆尾气的排放量——除了大规模减少私人汽车——替换传统的柴油和汽油，用燃烧得更加清洁的燃料，比如说压缩天然气、液化石油气、乙醇、或者甲醇。

43.这些戏剧因素，连同(并列关系)一种强烈的社会或者政治目的，以及对话中西班牙语、英语、和美籍墨西哥人方言的混合使用，这种混合使用真实地捕捉住到美籍墨西哥人的对话韵味（特点），仍然是特征，acto戏剧和现在大多数其它形式的美国墨西哥戏剧的特征。

44.Actos戏剧的即兴的喜剧讽刺，经常被归功于Valdez对16世纪意大利c.d.a.（即兴喜剧）的研究，尽管有些评论家把它看作是直接反映，对于同时代的地方性的墨西哥carpas戏剧中喜剧和即兴特点的反映（影响）。

45.意大利的影响是可能的，不管Valdez的直接来源是什么：墨西哥carpas戏剧据说本身就来源于16世纪西班牙作家的戏剧作品，而这些西班牙作家受到启发，是因为遇到了（观看）意大利c.d.a. 剧团在西班牙的巡回演出。

46.但是，最近的发现，这三种动物的鳍足的骨骼结构都有详细的类似之处，这个发现削弱了下文的企图，即把表面上的类似解释为趋同进化的结果——是指类似结构的独立发展，在不相关的种群之间，对于类似的环境压力的反应。

47.人类过量的摄入（成人每天超过4毫克）多年以后会导致骨骼氟中毒，一种容易识别的骨骼混乱（病症），而且在某些植物中，氟化物的毒性要比臭氧、二氧化硫或者杀虫剂都大。

48.而且，虽然来自于水和空气中的氟化物摄入量相对容易测量，但是却难以测量出特定的人口从食物中摄入的氟化物含量，因为有很大的区别存在于个人的饮食习惯和不同食物的氟含量当中。